Atif Saeed Ch.

Intel makes many processors designed for different computers and functions. From power-saving processors for netbooks to high-end, multiple-core 64-bit processors, understanding the differences in the processors is key to selecting the right one for your computing purposes.
Atom
Intel Atom processors are low-power-consumption processors designed for use in netbooks and other networked-based computing devices where battery life and power consumption are more important than processing power. There are several types of Atom processor. Processors without a letter designator before the number are meant for general low-power devices. Processors with a N designator are designed for netbooks. Atom processors designed for mobile Internet devices have a Z designator. The number following the designator indicates the level of processor. Higher numbers indicate more processor features.
Celeron
Celeron processors are designed for lower-end desktop computers that are primarily used for web activities and basic computing. Celeron processors have a numerical indicator. The higher the number, the more features on the processor. There are different classes of Celeron processors, including lower-power consumption processors designed for laptop computers.
Pentium
Pentium has been used as a name for a number of different generations of processors. Current generation Pentium processors are energy-efficient dual core processors designed for desktop computers. Pentium processors have numeric designators that, like other Intel processors, indicate higher levels of features with higher-series numbers.
Core
There are two types of Core processors. The original Core processor is called the i7. The number following the i7 on the CPU indicates the number of CPU features. A higher number indicates more features, like cache, clock speed, front side bus or other technologies. Core 2 Duo processors are multiple-core processors. They have a number of letter indicators that indicate different processor families: QX indicates a high-performance quad core CPU, X indicates a high-performance dual-core CPU, Q indicates a quad-core desktop CPU, E indicates an energy-efficient dual core CPU, T indicates an energy-efficient mobile CPU, P indicates a low-power mobile CPU with lower-power consumption than the T, L indicates a very low-power consumption mobile CPU, U indicates the lowest-power consumption Core 2 processor made by Intel, and S indicates a small-form factor CPU package. These alphabetic indicators are followed by a number. Higher numbers indicate more CPU features.
Xeon and Itanium
Intel Xeon and Itanium processors are server class CPUs designed and optimized for various server applications. These processors have three letter indicators: X indicates a high-performance CPU, E indicates a rack-optimized CPU, and L indicates a power-optimized CPU. There are three levels of Xeon processors. The 3000 series processors contain a single core, 5000 series processors contain two cores, and 7000 series processors contain more than two cores. The 9000 series processors indicate Itanium class processors, which can have two or more cores. Higher numbers in each series indicate more processor features.

Windows 95 was the successor to the three existing general-purpose desktop operating systems from Microsoft—Windows 3.1, Windows for Workgroups, and MS-DOS. Windows 95 integrated a 32-bit TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) stack for built-in Internet support, dial-up networking, and new Plug and Play capabilities that made it easy for users to install hardware and software.
The 32-bit operating system also offered enhanced multimedia capabilities, more powerful features for mobile computing, and integrated networking.

The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on 20 November 1985, achieved little popularity. It was originally going to be called "Interface Manager" but Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name would be more appealing to consumers. Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended MS-DOS, and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems. The first version of Microsoft Windows included a simple graphics painting program called Windows Paint, Windows Write, a simple word processor, an appointment "calendar", a "cardfiler", a "notepad", a "clock", a "control panel", a "computer terminal", "Clipboard", and RAM driver. It also included the MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi.

At about the same time as Claude Shannon was working on his masters thesis on boolean algebra and electronic circuitry, George Stibitz, a Bell Labs researcher, had a similar thought.
Realising that boolean logic could be used for the circuitry of electromechanical telephone relays, Stibitz gathered together a conglomeration of old relays, batteries, flashlight bulbs, wires, and tin strips - and sat down at his kitchen table in 1937 to fiddle.
The result was the prototype binary adder circuit - an electromechanical circuit that controlled binary addition. Stibitz incorporated his new circuitry into his Model K (the K standing for - appropriately, if less than imaginatively - Kitchen) digital calculator.
Stibitz took his circuit back to Bell Labs and over the next two years, working in conjunction with Samuel Williams, devised a machine that could calculate all four basic mathematical functions with complex numbers.
The Complex Number Calculator (later renamed the Bell Labs Model Relay Computer), came to be widely recognised as the world's first electronic digital computer.
In 1940, Stibitz installed his invention at the company's main office in Manhattan, linking it to three separate teletype machines within the same building, allowing the computer to be used from more than one location. Nine months later, he added a fourth teletype - 250 miles away in New Hampshire.
There, in front of a somewhat sceptical audience consisting of members of the American Mathematical Society, Stibitz demonstrated the process of remote-control electromechanical computation by transmitting data over the teletype and receiving the computer's calculations in the same way - at the same time changing the concepts and uses of computers forever.

In 1936, graduate student Claude Shannon arrived at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In the best tradition of grad students, Shannon was short of money, and happy to be recruited by his professor, Vannevar Bush, to tend Bush's unwieldy mechanical computing device - the Differential Analyser.
The Differential Analyser, while a marvel of scientific engineering for its time, was a lot of hard work to maintain. Basically an assembly of shafts and gears, the gears themselves had to be manually configured to specific ratios before any problem could be ‘fed’ to the machine - a boring, laborious (and extremely messy) business:
"I had to kind of, you know, fix [it] from time to time to keep it going".
Encouraged by Bush to base his master's thesis on the logical operation of the Differential Analyser, Shannon inevitably considered ways of improving it, perhaps by using electrical circuits instead of the present cumbersome collection of mechanical parts.
Not long afterwards, it dawned on Shannon that the boolean algebra he'd learned as an undergraduate was in fact very similar to an electric circuit. The next obvious step would be to lay out circuitry according to boolean principles, allowing the circuits to binary-test propositions as well as calculate problems.
Shannon incorporated his musings into his 1937 thesis. The paper, and its author, were hailed as brilliant, and his ideas were almost immediately put into force in the design of telephone systems. Later, Shannon's thesis came to be seen as a focal point in the development of modern computers.
A half-century later, Shannon laid it all at the feet of Lady Luck: "It just happened that no one else was familiar with both fields at the same time."
Shannon's later work, 'A Mathematical Theory of Communication' (1948), outlining what we now know as Information Theory, described the measurement of information by binary digits representing yes-no alternatives - the fundamental basis of today's telecommunications.
Luckily, 'A Mathematical Theory of Communication' was written while Shannon was employed by Bell Labs - because Shannon wasn't planning on publishing his work, and only did so at the urging of fellow employees.
The paper outlined a mathematical definition of information and, probably based on his work in cryptography during the war, Shannon described ways to measure data using the quantity of disorder in any given system, together with the concept of entropy.
(Information, in this sense, includes messages that occur in any communications medium - television, radio, telephone, data processing devices such as computers and servo-mechanisms, even neural networks.)

Gottfried Leibniz laid the modern foundation of the movement from decimal to binary as far back as 1666 with his 'On the Art of Combination', laying out a method for reducing all logic to exact statements.
Leibniz believed logic, or ‘the laws of thought’ could be moved from a verbal state - which was subject to the ambiguities of language, tone and circumstance - into an absolute mathematical condition:
"A sort of universal language or script, but infinitely different from all those projected hitherto, for the symbols and even words in it would direct the reason, and errors, except for those of fact, would be mere mistakes in calculation. It would be very difficult to form or invent this language or characteristic, but very easy to understand it without any dictionaries."
The concept was a bit high-flown for his time, and Leibniz' idea was ignored by the scientific community of his day. He let his proposition drop - until about ten years later when the Chinese 'Book of Changes', or 'I Ching', came his way.
Leibniz found some sort of confirmation for his theories in the I Ching's depiction of the universe as a progression of contradicting dualities, a series of on-off, yes-no possibilities, such as dark-light and male-female, which formed the complex interaction of life and consciousness. He reasoned that, if life itself could be reduced to a series of straightforward propositions, so could thought, or logic.
Heartened by his new insights, Leibniz set out to refine his rudimentary binary system, studiously transposing numerals into seemingly infinite rows of ones and zeros - even though he couldn't really find a use for them.

The only child of British poet Lord George Gordon Byron and Annabella Milkbanke (who was herself a proficient mathematician in an age when ladies just didn't do that sort of thing), Augusta Ada Byron showed an early flair for math and logical thought in what was to be a sadly short life.
Mostly self-educated in mathematics, as her studies advanced Ada found a mentor in Augustus de Morgan, first professor of mathematics at the University of London - and one of the people that can be held accountable for the development of modern algebra.
Ada kept up regular correspondence with the leading scientific lights of her day, and it was through her friendship with mathematician Mary Somerville that she was eventually introduced to Charles Babbage.
Ada was fascinated with Babbage's theoretical ‘difference’ and ‘analytical’ engines, and in 1842 agreed to translate a French account of his technical presentations into English. By 1843 the original 'Notions sur la machine analytique de Charles Babbage' (Elements of Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, Luigi Frederico Menabrea, 1842) had tripled in size with the addition of her own notes and observations.
Babbage - not a particularly warm or likable man by all accounts - was impressed, admitting that: "the more I read your notes the more surprised I am at them and regret not having earlier explored so rich a vein of the noblest metal." (Purple prose was big back then.)

While George Stibitz and Konrad Zuse were trying to develop the circuitry that would eventually lead to the invention of the digital computer, Vannevar Bush was working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology - but he was heading in a different direction.
Bush was attempting to re-invent Charles Babbage's Difference Engine.
He did it, too. At a time when engineers were beginning to look towards electrical circuits for more efficient processing of much more complex operations, Bush managed to produce a calculating machine that used electricity only to turn the shafts, which turned the cranks, which clanked away clumsily to solve differential equations - all only after the various gear ratios had been calculated and manually calibrated.
Bush's ‘continuous integraph’, later called the Differential Analyser, was still a significant development in the progress towards an analogue computer, influencing development of analogue machines around the world.